Transcribed Interview Discussion

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RES/724: Qualitative Methods and Design WK 7 – Applied Practice: Interviewing
MORGAN A. BARAJAS
University of Phoenix
RES/724: Qualitative Methods And Design
INSTRUCTOR: Cheryl Anderson
06/13/2022
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Applied Practice: Interviewing
Conducting the interviews with health professionals was an excellent exercise that guided
me in understanding other possibilities of curbing medical health misinformation. I learned that
even health professionals and researchers are prone to health misinformation. I did not expect
health professionals to fall under the trap of misinformation. However, one of the experts
mentioned that “as long as people’s beliefs about factual matters lack adequate evidence, then it
can be misinformation as well.” Every person forms certain beliefs regarding various situations;
tangible evidence backing up the beliefs distinguishes accurate health information from
misinformation.
While interviewing with the experts, I learned that health misinformation care
misinformation affects our discussions with medical professionals. I knew that health
misinformation could affect care-seeking behaviors, such as seeking inappropriate healthcare.
Still, it had not occurred to me that misinformation can affect how we approach and discuss with
medical experts. One expert educated me that health misinformation mostly occurs due to a lack
of proper understanding between causation and correlation in research findings. I evaluated their
arguments and noted that the problem of health misinformation is deeply-rooted in our system
such that we do not realize it not unless it is on end.
The primary challenge was identifying an expert. Deciding who is an expert and who is
not was a challenge because some people who have specialized in certain fields yet, do not
practice their specializations. Others have specialized knowledge and practice but do not have
much experience in the field. Deciding the best candidate to approach for the interviews was an
uphill task, which was also time-consuming. Also, although the interviews were limited to two
experts, each interview took longer than expected. I noted that to break the monotony of
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interrogation, the interviews would sometimes turn into a dialogue and discussions, which were
not the primary intent of the exercise. The data obtained from the interviews are highly credible
because they were received directly from professionals and specialists. They shared this
information from their specialization knowledge and experience they have gained while
practising. The interviews focused on the professional’s knowledge, identified by virtue of their
specific knowledge in my field of interest, community position and status. From their feedback, I
could identify assumptions and thoughts to understand better the social reality of health
misinformation in correction facilities. Most importantly, the experts gave their opinion about the
subject of interest to help shape my practices while collecting data in the actual settings.
College of Doctoral Studies
Dissertation Guide
A Comprehensive Dissertation Development and Alignment Handbook
*Please note: This document is subject to changes, which will be recorded in Appendix
B: Document Change Log. Students and faculty should check back for changes and
download the current version often.
(Last Updated 8/4/2021)
Copyright 2021 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved.
Overview……………………………………………………………………………………………………………4
The Dissertation Process………………………………………………………………………………4
The Dissertation Committee………………………………………………………………………….7
Topic Selection and Alignment to the Degree Program………………………………………..9
Method and Design Selection and Alignment to Research Objectives…………………10
Overview of Methods and Designs ………………………………………………………………10
Research Design Selection and Alignment ………………………………………………………..14
Qualitative Design Selection and Alignment …………………………………………………14
Action Research ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14
Appreciative Inquiry …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17
Case Study………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19
Delphi Method Technique…………………………………………………………………………………………… 21
Ethnography………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 22
Grounded Theory……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 23
Narrative Inquiry ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 25
Needs Assessment ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 27
Phenomenology ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 28
Program Assessment ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 30
Quantitative Research Design Selection and Alignment ………………………………..32
Correlational Research……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 32
Experimental and Quasi-experimental Research ………………………………………………………….. 34
Ex Post Facto (Causal Comparative) …………………………………………………………………………… 36
Factor Analysis………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 38
Q-Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 39
Mixed-Method Research and Alignment ………………………………………………………41
Method and Design Selection Summary ……………………………………………………………43
Doctoral Phase 1: The Prospectus ……………………………………………………………………44
Alignment of the Prospectus Elements ………………………………………………………..46
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Doctoral Phase 2 – Précis ………………………………………………………………………………..47
Doctoral Phase 3 – Dissertation Chapter 2: Literature Review ……………………………52
Doctoral Phase 4 – QRM: Proposal …………………………………………………………………..56
Alignment of the Proposal Elements ……………………………………………………………61
Proposal Assessment Rubric ………………………………………………………………………62
Institutional Review Board (IRB)…………………………………………………………………..62
Doctoral Phase 5 – QRF: Dissertation Chapters 4 & 5: Dissertation…………………….63
Alignment of the Dissertation Elements……………………………………………………….69
Dissertation Assessment Rubric………………………………………………………………….70
Oral Defense ……………………………………………………………………………………………………71
Final Dissertation Editing………………………………………………………………………………….72
Structure of a Dissertation…………………………………………………………………………..72
Elements in an APA Paper …………………………………………………………………………..73
College of Doctoral Studies Dissertation Format Requirements…………………….76
Appendix A: Dissertation Template …………………………………………………………………..82
Appendix B: Document Change Log ………………………………………………………………. 112
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Table of Contents
Overview
This guide provides comprehensive information on University of Phoenix College of Doctoral Studies
practitioner program dissertation development steps and criteria. The overview section describes the
dissertation process and dissertation team. The Topic Selection and Alignment to the Degree Program
section describes each of the practitioner degree programs offered at the College of Doctoral Studies and
discusses potential areas for research. The Method and Design Selection and Alignment to Research
Objectives describes the research methods and provides a brief overview of the various associated
designs to assist in comparison and selection between the different designs.
The Research Design Selection and Alignment provides detailed information regarding the designs to
assist in understanding their applicability in research and provide resources for further understanding of
the designs.
In addition, this document describes the five phases of the dissertation process and provides guidance
on development and alignment of the prospectus and the dissertation chapters associated with each of
the five phases. The Dissertation Criteria Assessment (DCA) is a developmental and progression
feedback tool used to monitor students in meeting dissertation assessment criteria throughout the
Doctoral Journey Life Cycle and Dissertation Phases. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Oral
Defense sections briefly describe these important dissertation journey milestones, and the Final
Dissertation Editing (FDE) section describes the dissertation formatting requirements. Finally, Appendix
A: Dissertation Template provides a template for the full dissertation, including information andstrategies
on completion of each section of the dissertation.
The practitioner programs are situated within our
Scholar-Practitioner-Leader™ (SPL) model and
aligned to our mission of developing doctoral
leaders who conduct research for creative action
and guide diverse organizations through effective
decision-making.
Leader
Scholar
We hope that you will find this guide useful
throughout every phase of the doctoral process
and remember to enjoy the journey and allow it to
help you realize your passion by helping you
create research that will contribute to your
professional field!
Practitioner
The Dissertation Process
The dissertation process occurs in five phases, as
depicted below. The information below the figure
describes the five phases and deliverables further.
Students should use courses in each phase to build upon each
phase deliverable. Students are allowed to dovetail course
materials from content and research courses to build upon each
Dissertation Journey Phase.
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Table of Contents
• Prospectus
Phase 1
• Précis (draft Chapter 1)
Phase 2
Phase 3
Phase 4
Phase 5
Phase
• Concept Review (draft Chapter 2)
• Quality Review Methods: Proposal Chapters 1-3
• Quality Review Final: Dissertation Chapters 1-5
Work on the phase in the following
courses (enrolled prior to 1/2/2020)
BUS/700, EDD/700, or DHA/700 (8
weeks)
DOC/700 (5 weeks)
Doctoral Phase
1 – Prospectus:
Outline of the
Planned
Dissertation
Study
Doctoral Phase
2 – Précis
LDR/711A (8 weeks)
LDR/711A (8 weeks)
RES/709 (8 weeks)
RES/724 (8 weeks) Qualitative Methods
and Design
DOC/705R – Year 1 Residency (5 days) Deliverable: Prospectus
RES/709 (8 weeks)
DOC/714S – (8 weeks) – Deliverable:
Prospectus
Phase 1 courses
Phase 1 courses
RES/710 (8 weeks)
RES/724 (8 weeks)
RES/720 (8 weeks)
Program content requirement (8 weeks)
Two core program courses (8 weeks
each)
Program content requirement (8 weeks)
DOC/720R – Year 2 Residency (3 days) Deliverable: Précis
Doctoral Phase
3 – Concept
Review
Work on the phase in the following
courses (enrolled 1/2/2020 and after)
DOC/715 (8 weeks) – Deliverable:
Précis
Three core program courses (8 weeks
each)
Two content program courses (8 weeks
each)
DOC/723 (8 weeks) – Deliverable:
Concept Review
DOC/723 (8 weeks) – Deliverable:
Concept Review
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Table of Contents
Phase
Work on the phase in the following
courses (enrolled prior to 1/2/2020)
Research elective course (8 weeks)
Doctoral Phase
4 – QRM:
Proposal
(Chapters 1 – 3)
Doctoral Phase
5 –QRF:
Dissertation
(Chapters 1 – 5)
One core program course (8 weeks)
Year 3 Residency (8 days comprised of
a 5-day course and a 3-day course)
Work on the phase in the following
courses (enrolled 1/2/2020 and after)
Two content program courses (8 weeks
each)
*DOC/741 (8 weeks) – Deliverable:
Proposal Chapters 1-3
*DOC/741 (8 weeks) – Deliverable:
Proposal Chapters 1-3
Two core program courses (8 weeks
each)
IRB Review and Approval (occurring
concurrently)
*DOC/742 (8 weeks) – Deliverable:
Dissertation and Oral Defense
One Content Program Course (8 weeks)
DOC/719S (8 weeks)
*DOC/742 (8 weeks)– Deliverable:
Dissertation and Oral Defense
*Dissertation continuing enrollment courses are available and require written Chair and URM approval
prior to scheduling.
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Table of Contents
The Dissertation Committee
Newer Programs (DBA 004, EDD 004, DM 005, DHA 004; enrolled 1/2/2020
and after)
Students enrolled in the College of Doctoral Studies at the University of Phoenix are expected to be
dedicated, self-motivated, responsible, and independent learners accountable for the development of their
dissertation. Doctoral faculty members are dedicated to supporting and guiding students to the
completion of the doctorate.
Doctoral Seminar courses* are writing-intensive classes for students. The faculty provides guidance,
review, and feedback on dissertation deliverables to support the student in building a quality, robust
dissertation. Students should be in Doctoral Seminar classes for full reviews.
Role of Doctoral Student – Dissertation Phases 1-5
Doctoral students are accountable for writing all chapters of the proposal and dissertation while enrolled
in dissertation classes and independently outside of designated dissertation courses. Students select
dissertation topics that reflect gaps in the literature or problems identified from their practitioner
experience. Students must choose dissertation topics aligned with their degree programs.
Doctoral students should use work completed in content classes to build Chapter 2: The Literature
Review. Using work from prior classes or dovetailing enables students to capitalize on their work without
duplicating effort. Doctoral students will rely on committee feedback to build robust, cohesive, and quality
research projects aligned with the College of Doctoral Studies’ mission to enhance students’ positions as
a Scholar-Practitioner-Leaders (SPL) Model in their industries.
The Dissertation Committee includes three College of Doctoral Studies Staff Faculty members (chair and
two committee members, University Research Methodologist (URM) and Panel Validator (PV)), each
having a specialized role. The Dissertation Committee is assigned to work with student cohorts at
different stages.
Role of Chair – Assigned Phase 2 at the Start of DOC/715*
The Dissertation Chair is the subject matter expert for content and discipline relevance. The Dissertation
Chair leads the research problem development, research feasibility, rigor, and overall quality of the
proposal and dissertation phases. Dissertation Chairs facilitate DOC/715, DOC/723, DOC/742, and the
DOC/742 respective continuing enrollment courses. The Dissertation Chair leads the Oral Defense.
Role of the University Research Methodologist (URM) (first committee member) – Assigned
upon completion of Dissertation Phase 2
The URM leads proposal and dissertation research method and design to ensure alignment of
methodological strategies, rigor, and quality. The URM facilitates DOC/741 and DOC/741 continuing
enrollment courses. The URM and the Dissertation Chair are assigned to cohorts at the same time. The
URM reviews the research problem, purpose, research questions/hypothesis, and research method
design at DOC/715 and DOC/723 for alignment. The URM participates in the Oral Defense.
Role of the Panel Validator (second committee member) – Assigned upon completion of
Dissertation Phase 4
The PV is the subject matter expert who reviews Chapters 1-3 for scope and provides feedback to ensure
Chapters 4 and 5 offer robust and innovative industry recommendations aligned with the SPL Model. The
PV participates in the Oral defense and provides final APA and formatting review for the completed
dissertation.
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Dissertation Staff Faculty are not assigned to students but cohorts. *Chairs and URMs are tentatively
assigned at Phase 2. The permanent assignment is made after DOC/741.
*DOC/715, DOC/723, DOC/741, DOC/741A, DOC/741B, DOC/742, DOC/742A, DOC/742B, and all
continuing-enrollment extension courses.
All Other Programs (enrolled prior to 1/2/2020)
Students in all other programs working with selected dissertation committees will continue to work with
those faculty members. For students with selected dissertation committees, if a faculty resigns or
students wish to change a faculty member, students will be assigned a staff faculty member. There are
situations where changes in dissertation committee faculty may delay student progression based on new
faculty feedback and incomplete student documents.
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Topic Selection and Alignment to the Degree Program
The initial step in achieving dissertation alignment is selecting a topic aligned with the program of study,
also referred to as the industry or discipline of study. The topic should reflect an existing problem within
the industry. The following information provides brief examples of dissertation topics that align with the
various practitioner programs currently offered as University of Phoenix doctoral studies. For detailed
program information, visit https://www.phoenix.edu/degrees/doctorate.html. Please note, specializations
are for program-specific versions prior to 1/2/2020.
Doctor of Business Administration (DBA)
Dissertation topics for the DBA program may focus on various commercial ventures including business
startup activities, small to medium businesses, business operations, business processes, finance, or
marketing activities.
Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership (EDD)
The EDD program focuses on K-12 education. The dissertation may focus on broad aspects associated
with these educational levels including test scores, drop out decisions, and examining academic success.
Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership with a specialization in Curriculum and Instruction
(EDD/CI)
The CI specialization of the EDD program often focuses on the curricula during the K-12 educational
programs. The dissertation may also explore teaching methods, strategies, and instruction used in the
design or implementation of new educational programs.
Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership with a specialization in Educational Technology (EDD/ET)
The ET specialization within the EDD program focuses on how technology is used or can be used to
facilitate learning. The emphasis may include examination of currently used techniques or development
of recommendations for improving use of technology in the classroom.
Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership with a specialization in Higher Education Administration
(EDD/HEA)
The HEA specialization within the EDD program focuses on college- and university-level instruction. The
dissertation may focus on broad aspects associated with higher education including student retention,
student engagement, drop out decisions, instructional approaches and strategies, design, or
implementation of new educational programs, or use of technology to facilitate learning.
Doctor of Health Administration (DHA)
The DHA program is intended to develop executive level health care professionals. Added program focus
is on health administration research within clinical settings, hospital settings, or home health settings.
Dissertations often focus on policies, processes, and procedures involved in the delivery of care,
leadership of health care professionals and support staff, resources, and cost effectiveness and
efficiency.
Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership (DM)
The DM program focuses on organizational leadership and management. Dissertation writers may
explore leadership behavior, leadership skills, human resources, employee satisfaction, employee
engagement, management of organizational resources, operational processes, change management, or
business processes and procedures within an organization.
Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership with a specialization in Information Systems and
Technology (DM/IST)
The DM/IST program focuses on the use of technology within organizations. Relevant dissertation topics
include the current or proposed use of information technology (IT) within the organizational setting.
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Method and Design Selection and Alignment to Research
Objectives
Once the student selects a dissertation topic and identifies a problem, the student should develop a
research purpose that aligns with the problem then select a research method and design aligned with the
purpose. Note that alignment between the purpose and design is an iterative process; the purpose should
be modified to reflect the selected design.
The following information describes the three research methods. The most commonly used method
within practitioner doctoral programs is qualitative followed by quantitative. The third method, mixedmethod, combines qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Overview of Methods and Designs
Qualitative Research
•
•
•
•
Qualitative research is used to address a social problem by gaining an understanding of
participants’ opinions, perceptions, and feelings, or by reviewing documents.
Qualitative data are narrative data collected using approaches such as interviews,questionnaires,
focus groups, observations, or archival documents.
The researcher is typically very involved with the participants during the research.
The sampling type is usually purposeful, and the sample size is typically small.
Qualitative Research and the Inductive Process
•
•
Qualitative research is based on inductive reasoning.
Induction is a “bottom up” approach that moves from the research questions to narrative
interview or questionnaire data or observations, to patterns and themes based on these data, to
broad conclusions about those data, and can lead to a theory.
.
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Table of Contents
Strengths and Weakness of Qualitative Research
•
•
Strengths:
o Provides a wide variety of designs.
o Flexibility in data collectionapproaches.
Weaknesses:
o Selecting an appropriate design can be a challenge for novice researchers.
o Results cannot be generalized due to small samples and limitedcontext.
Qualitative Research Designs
The qualitative method includes several designs. The following information provides a brief synopsis of
many of the major qualitative designs. Detailed information about the implementation of each of these
designs is provided in the Qualitative Design Selection and Alignment section.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Action research: The researcher works collaboratively with an organization or institution to
address a problem or create policy. There are various types of action research; each differs
regarding the researcher’s role and the objectives.
Appreciative inquiry: Like action research, but rather than focusing on existing problems it
focuses on building on the existing positive aspects of an organization and envisioning innovative
enhancements for the future.
Case study: The researcher examines an existing bounded “case” such as an organizational or
institutional process using multiple sources of data to triangulate knowledge about the case.
Case studies require an explicit “type.”
Delphi technique: Delphi research uses a panel of subject matter experts to examine consensus
on topics such as best industry practices or the future of the topic under study. This technique is
usually accomplished in two to three rounds.
Ethnography: The researcher examines a culture to identify the cultural norms, social structures,
and other patterns.
Grounded theory: The researcher seeks to generate a new theory or a theoretical modelthat
explains a process or action. The theory is “grounded” in data from these participants. This
design implies that no theory currently exists.
Needs assessment: This research is the first step for an institution or organization considering
the development of a program or training. The research focuses on defining the program
requirements or training competencies.
Phenomenology: This research focuses on first-hand “lived experiences” of participants who
have all experienced a common personal phenomenon. This design seeks to explore participants’
internal dialog about the phenomenon.
Program assessment (or program evaluation): The researcher evaluates an organizational or
institutional program to measure the actual program outcomes against its intended outcomes.
Quantitative Research
•
•
Quantitative research is used to address a social problem by quantifying participants’ opinions,
perceptions, and feelings. This is not limited to what is quantifiable to humans as phenomena,
instrumental measures (e.g., BP/pulse measures, weight loss/gain, expenses), retention rates
and error rates are also quantifiable.
Quantitative data are numerical data collected using approaches such as surveys or big data
sets, which are statistically analyzed to test hypotheses.
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•
•
The researcher may not be directly involved with participants during the research. In a
pretest/posttest design, the researcher could be active.
The sampling type is usually random, and the sample size is typically large and based onthe
population size. There are times when a researcher may not use random sampling.
Quantitative Research and the Deductive Process
•
•
Quantitative research is based on deductive reasoning.
Deduction is a “top down” approach that transitions from general to specific by developing
hypotheses and statistically testing the hypotheses with quantitative data to develop findings and
conclusions.
Strengths and Weakness of Quantitative Research
•
•
Strengths:
o Tests and validates hypotheses.
o Straight-forward data collection and analysis; easy to replicate.
o The large sample size allows the results to be generalized to the population.
Weaknesses:
o Theoretical conceptualization of the study isolates variables, which limits the measurable
impact of other interveningvariables.
o Measuring relationships between the variables does not determine cause- and-effect.
Quantitative Research Designs
The quantitative method includes several designs. The following list describes the most common
quantitative designs used in doctoral research. Each of these designs is detailed in the Quantitative
Design Selection and Alignment section.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
Correlational research: The researcher is interested in determining the relationship between two
or more quantifiable variables. It is important to note that correlation does not determine causeand-effect.
Experimental research: The researcher randomly assigns participants to experimentaland
control groups and manipulates one or more variables to determine cause-and-effect.
Ex post facto (or causal-comparative): The objective of this design is to identify causal
relationships among variables that cannot be manipulated such as gender, ethnicity, orbirth
order. Causal research can be used to determine cause-and- effect between variables.
Factor analyses: The researcher analyzes interrelationships within a set of variables or objects to
construct a reduced set of variables, called factors, which contain the essential information in the
original larger set of variables.
Q-methodology: The researcher examines participant’s views about a topic as the participants
rank-order the Q sample. The Q sample is developed based on a literature review. The resulting Q
sort is used to determine subjectivity.
Quasi-experimental research: This design is similar to experimental research; however, whereas
experimental research requires a treatment (manipulated variable), control, randomization, and
able to be replicated, quasi-experimental is when any one or more of these characteristics of
design is not possible.
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Research Design Selection and Alignment
This section expands on the brief design descriptions above and defines implementation of the major
qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method designs that align well with the doctoral practitioner programs
offered at University of Phoenix. The information is provided to assist in understanding differences
between the various designs, to provide alignment information, and to provide examples of how to
implement each research design.
Each research design section includes brief information on the research objectives of the design and
includes external links for further information. Additionally, each section describes how to construct and
align the dissertation problem statement, purpose statement, significance of the study, methodology
section, and research questions with the design.
The designs listed are not fully inclusive; other designs may be acceptable, but please note that hybrid or
“boutique” designs should be avoided. Once an appropriate design is selected it is imperative to become
independently informed of how to correctly implement the design. Refer to the recommended references
listed for each design for further information.
Qualitative Design Selection and Alignment
Action Research
The purpose of this section is to describe the implementation of action research. This design, which is
often associated with education or healthcare research, allows the researcher to seek solutions to an
organizational problem or a broader societal problem collaboratively with the members of the
organization under study.
There are four different approaches to action research which are color coded throughout this document:
Action research (AR), Participative research (PR), Participative action research (PAR), and Technical
action research (TAR).
For the basic action research (AR) design the participants are usually limited to the management team;
for PR the participants are those directly involved in the process; for PAR the participants are often intrateam representatives from throughout the organization. This section should also describe appropriate
data collection and analysis. The researcher role within AR is to collaborate with organizational
leadership to lead data collection based on available data and management interviews, analyze the
current process, recommend specific changes, implement the changes, and evaluate the results.
Within participative research (PR) the role of the researcher is to develop understanding based on the
tacit knowledge of the employees and managers. Data are collected via interviews and archival
documentation, evaluated, and reduced to clear information such as process flows and communication
flow diagrams. The researcher shares the information with the employees and managers to facilitate
collaborative change recommendations.
Participative action research (PAR) requires the researcher and employees to collaboratively resolve a
major organizational problem or address an organizational level decision; the results of PAR are designed
to influence policy and practice. Examples of PAR include tiger teams or blue-ribbon panels in which
participants who are impacted by the problem are brought together from across the organization to
creatively address a systemic issue by planning and implementing the change. The researcher shares
control of the process design with the employees.
Technical action research (TAR) is collaborative in that the researcher collaborates with the leadership or
process owner, but the research typically does not include collaboration with other organizational
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employees. In this approach the research objectives are developed by the organization or by an external
facilitator rather than by the researcher. The researcher shares the information with the leadership;
however, the primary objective is to create or test a theory and publish the findings such as within a
doctoral dissertation. The discussion below describes how to implement each approach when developing
the various sections of a dissertation.
Defining and implementing action research further describes the objective and implementation of action
research.
Problem Statement:
Discuss what problem will be addressed by the research. Since action research is typically based on the
needs of a single organization rather than a broad issue, it is acceptable to cite the organizational
leadership as “personal communication” (see p. 179 of the APA manual). In contrast, participative action
research (PAR) may be focused on a broader societal issue rather than an organization specific problem,
and technical action research (TAR) focuses on a broad social science issue in order to develop or test a
theory.
Purpose Statement:
The purpose statement should outline the method (qualitative) and design, such as action research,
participative research, or participatory action research. Describe the research participants, your role in the
research, and their role in the research. The purpose statement also should state the objectives, and the
objectives must align with the design.
Action research (AR) focuses on improving organizational procedures from a process- oriented
perspective; the goal is to collaborate with the leadership or process owner to improve a process from an
advisor perspective before, during, and after the process change.
Participative research (PR) includes creation of knowledge based on the tacit knowledge of employees
and managers involved in the process; the focus is inclusion of the participants. Implementation of a PR
design requires researcher and employee commitment during the project to collaboratively address a
problem. The researcher enables the participants to “solve their own problems” (Elden, Reason, & Rowan,
1981, p. 259).
Participative action research (PAR) requires the researcher and employees to collaboratively resolve a
major organizational problem or address an organizational level decision; the results of PAR are designed
to influence policy and practice. Examples of PAR include tiger teams or blue-ribbon panels in which
participants who are impacted by the problem are brought together from across the organization to
creatively address a systemic issue by planning and implementing the change. The researcher shares
control of the process design with the employees.
Technical action research (TAR) focuses on a broad social science issue in order to develop or test a
theory. Rather than primarily focusing on improving a process used by an organization, the principal intent
of PAR is to add to the body of knowledge.
Significance of the Study
Describe how changing the process, addressing the problem, or influencing the organizational policy and
practice might benefit the organization. For PAR the resultant change may have a larger societal impact
or may be transferable to societal issues. For TAR studies the resultant recommendations should have a
potential societal impact.
Research Methodology
All action research approaches are typically qualitative. Discuss use of the qualitative method and the
specific action research design to be used.
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Research Questions
As a qualitative study research questions must be included, but hypotheses should not be included.
Example research questions for Action Research (AR): Since AR includes assessment before, during, and
after the process change, appropriate research question might include:
R1. What factors are contributing to the process issues?
R2. What changes can be implemented to create prospective process improvement? R3. What were the
impacts of the implemented changes?
Example research questions for Participative Research (PR): Since PR is limited to the planning and
implementation phase and collaborates with the employees and managers, appropriate research
question might include:
R1. What are the process owners’/managers’ perceptions of factors contributing to the process issues?
R2. What are the employees’ perceptions of factors contributing to the process issues? R3. What changes
can be implemented to create prospective process improvement while best meeting the needs of
employees?
Example research questions for Participative Action Research (PAR): Since PAR is limited to the planning
and implementation phase, and collaborates with the employees and managers to resolve a major
organizational problem or address an organizational level decision and influence policy and practice,
appropriate research question might include:
R1. What are the process owners’/managers’ perceptions of factors contributing to the issue?
R2. What are the potential impacts to the organization issues?
R3. What are the potential benefits and challenges of each option for addressing the issue, and which
option might produce the optimal results?
R4. What policy and practice changes must be implemented to facilitate the selected option, what is the
expected outcome for the organization, and is the solution transferable to broader societal issues?
Example research questions for Technical Action Research (TAR): Since TAR usually relies on research
objectives developed externally and focuses on a broad social science issue to develop or test a theory
and add to the body of knowledge, appropriate research question might include:
R1. What are the stakeholder’s research objectives or theory to be tested?
R2. How can these objectives be met, or how can this theory be tested within the participating
organization?
R3. How might the results be used to improve the participating organization?
R4. How are the results transferable to the broader societal issue, and how do the results contribute to
the body of knowledge?
Resources
Dissertation Guide Readings for Action Research
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Appreciative Inquiry
Appreciative inquiry (AI) is a change management approach that is typically conducted in organizations.
Therefore, this design is typically associated with the DM or DBA programs, but this design can be
accomplished within other institutions such as healthcare or educational institutions. AI is an
organizational improvement approach that focuses on the positive aspects of the organization rather
than directly attempting to address and resolve existing problems. This design was originally developed
and discussed in an article by Cooperrider and Srivastva (1987). AI can be used to improve current
processes or organizations or to generate new ideas and recommendations for the organization under
study.
Note that the positive approach of implementing the AI design for addressing organizational problems
has an important benefit in gaining the organization’s approval for conducting the research.
Organizational stakeholders are more likely to allow researchers to conduct a study designed to improve
a process or an organization than to examine an existing organization issue, such as using a case study
approach to investigate a problem.
According to Kessler (2013), Cooperrider’s “4D” AI model involves four phases. During the discovery
phase the researcher collects participant’s reflections and stories regarding the positive aspects of the
organizational process under study. The second phase, dream, is a collaborative effort to imagine an
idealized state. This step often involves development of a graphical representation. The third phase,
design, involves realistic planning of the steps required to attain the vision created in phase two. The
destiny phase focuses on developing a set of recommendations for practitioners and leaders based on
the collection and analysis of employees’, stakeholders’, and the researcher’s organizational process
improvement insights.
The following links provide information and videos that introduce appreciative inquiry:
• Introduction to appreciative inquiry
• Cooperrider videos
Problem Statement
Discuss the organizational deficit to be addressed by the study. If the purpose is to generate new ideas
and recommendations for the organization under study, then discuss the process or section that requires
improvement. Since this application is typically based on the needs of a single organization rather than a
broad issue it is acceptable to cite the organizational leadership as “personal communication” (see p. 179
of the APA manual). If the proposed improvements can be implemented across the industry, then discuss
the industry-wide deficit as the problem.
Purpose Statement
The purpose statement should state that the method is qualitative, and the design is appreciative inquiry.
The purpose statement also should state the objectives of the research such as to examine the current
processes and recommend improvements. This section should also state the type of organization or
institution, the program objectives, and participants or stakeholders involved in the current processes.
Significance of the Study
Describe the potential benefits of the proposed organizational change such as to create efficiencies,
reduce operational costs, increase customer and/or employee satisfaction, or create improved
organizational outcomes.
Proposed Research Methodology
The appreciative inquiry design is typically associated with the qualitative method but may be conducted
as qualitative supported by quantitative data if quantitative data will also be collected and analyzed.
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Research Questions
Example AI research questions might focus on the first three phases of the 4D model, such as:
R1. What are stakeholders’ reflections and stories regarding the positive aspects of the current
organizational process?
R2. What idealized future state do stakeholders envision?
R3. What steps are required to attain the vision?
Note that the fourth phase of the 4D model, destiny, will be discussed in chapter 5 of the dissertation.
Therefore, it is not necessary to include an explicit research question to address this final phase.
Resources
Dissertation Guide Readings for Appreciative Inquiry
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Case Study
A case study involves extensive exploration of a bounded case, which can be defined as a specific
organization, situation, or process. The researcher must be able to clearly define and create limits around
the subject to be studied (Merriam, 1998). As Merriam (1998) pointed out, “A case study design is
employed to gain an in-depth understanding of the situation and meaning for those involved. The interest
is in process rather than outcomes, in context rather than a specific variable, in discovery rather than
confirmation” (p. 19).
Three of the most prominent case study methodologists are Robert Yin, Robert Stake, and Sharan
Merriam. Researchers using the case study design should become familiar with and cite the work of all
three authors. Yin Stake and Merriam case study differentiation discusses the various perspectives of the
three theorists in designing and implementing a case study.
Case studies include two unique requirements—they must include a type and they must be supported by
multiple sources of evidence. These two requirements are described below.
Multiple sources. The multiple sources requirement may be fulfilled using two or more of the six sources
defined by Yin (2009):
• Documentation
• Archival records
• Interviews
• Direct observations
• Participant-observations
• Physical artifacts
It is important to keep in mind that the multiple sources of data must not only be collected; they must
also be analyzed and triangulated to create the results in Chapter 4.
Case study sources of evidence by Yin provides additional information on sources of evidence.
Optionally, the multiple sources may be obtained using a stratified sample from two of more different
populations of participants. For example, an educational research may involve perspectives from a
sample of teachers, a sample of administrators, and a sample of parents. These data sources must be
triangulated during data analysis phase to view the bounded case from various perspectives.
Single case studies, defined as a study of a single individual, are incapable of providing conclusions
beyond the individual under study (Tellis, 1997). Note that a case study of a single individual is not
considered a rigorous enough design for a dissertation.
Case study types. Yin (2009) defined the three most common types of case studies: explanatory,
exploratory, and descriptive. Stake (1994) additionally defined three types: intrinsic, instrumental, and
collective. These six types are briefly defined below.
Although these are the most commonly used types other types may be used.
Explanatory. An explanatory case study design is used to explain why a phenomenon occurs. In
explanatory case studies, the focus is to explore phenomena in real-world settings (Yin, 2009).
Exploratory. An exploratory case study is a technique used to collect more in- depth data about
what is occurring. Exploratory case studies are used to explore phenomena where no defined outcomes
are foreseeable (Yin, 2009).
Descriptive. Descriptive case studies are based upon an already established theory. In descriptive
case studies, a population is examined and data collected about that population, which is compared to a
theory supporting the phenomenon being observed (Yin, 2009).
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Intrinsic. Stake (1994) defined an intrinsic study as focused on examining a particular case
because the case itself is of interest.
Instrumental. The goal of an instrumental case study is to provide insight into an issue or
problem or to enhance an existing theory (Stake, 1994).
Collective. In a collective case study several cases are examined in order to understand a
problem, phenomenon, or situation (Stake, 1994).
Review information on case studies and select a specific type of case study. See the following:
• Case study information – Tellis volume 1
• Case study design and Implementation – Baxter and Jack
Problem Statement
Discuss the existing issue within the bounded case to be addressed by the study. If the purpose is to
generate new ideas and recommendations for the organization under study, then discuss the process or
section that requires improvement. Since this application is typically based on the needs of a single
organization rather than a broad issue it is acceptable to cite the organizational leadership as “personal
communication” (see p. 179 of the APA manual). If the proposed improvements can be implemented
across the industry, then discuss the industry-wide deficit as the problem.
Purpose Statement
In addition to stating that the method is qualitative, the purpose section of a case study must describe
both the type of case study and the multiple sources of evidence to be used. The purpose statement also
should state the objectives of the research such as to examine a specific situation within an organization
or institution.
Significance of the Study
Describe the potential benefits of the proposed study such as to explore the situation in order to make
recommendations for improvement.
Proposed Research Methodology
Case studies are typically associated with the qualitative method but may be conducted as qualitative
supported by quantitative data if quantitative data will also be collected and analyzed.
Research Questions
The research questions should reflect the multiple sources of data. For example, when using a stratified
sample and archival documents:
R1. What are school administrators’ perceptions of the high absenteeism in high school?
R2. What are teachers’ perceptions of the situation under study?
R3. What are parents’ perceptions of the situation under study?
R4. Based on documentation, how has the situation changed during the 2018-2019 school year?
Resources
Dissertation Guide Readings for Case Study
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Delphi Method Technique
The Delphi technique can be used to forecast a future state within the technology industry, to gain
consensus on industry best practices, or to examine healthcare experts’ opinion on health and disease
trends. Therefore, design can be particularly useful for DM/IST, DM, or DHA research. This technique was
developed in in 1950s by the RAND Corporation to forecast the impact of technology. See RAND
corporation Delphi information.
Student should also review Nominal Group Technique (NGT) when contemplating Delphi to ensure
alignment to the appropriate technique. NGT is best for working on best practices whereas most Delphi
studies focus on forecasting future solutions.
A key element of this design is that it relies on a panel of subject matter experts. Although this design
was originally created for face-to-face interaction between the panel members, current studies typically
use a modified Delphi in which the expert panel are geographically dispersed and do not interact directly.
The researcher facilitates a two to three-round iterative process to collect and analyze the experts’
opinions in order to converge on themes, generate statistical agreement data, and reach consensus. The
first round involves open-ended questions submitted to the expert panel in order to create a sub-set of
common threads, or themes. The second round typically requires the expert panel members to rate the
themes on a Likert-type scale in order to identify their level of agreement. The third round, when utilized, is
typically another narrative data collection. Delphi rounds discusses the use of the rounds of during data
collection and analysis.
Problem Statement
Discuss the unknown nature of the topic under study. For example, the future technological state is not
known, the trend of a healthcare issue is unknown, or best industry practices have not been identified.
The unknown nature of the problem must be stated in literature and the problem must be cited.
Purpose Statement
The purpose statement should specifically state that the objective of the research is to obtain consensus
based on industry experts. Example: The purpose of the proposed Delphi study will be to gain consensus
from a national panel of healthcare experts on strategies to reduce the nursing shortage.
Significance of the Study
Describe the potential benefits of the proposed study such as to develop industry best practices based on
expert consensus.
Proposed Research Methodology
Delphi studies are often associated with the qualitative method but since Round 2 involves a Likert-type
scale data collection and analysis this design may be referred to as qualitative supported by quantitative
data.
Research Questions
The research questions should mirror the purpose. For example:
R1. What are industry experts’ best practices in organizational strategic planning?
R2. What is the level of consensus between industry experts’ best practices in organizational planning?
Resources
Dissertation Guide Readings for Delphi Technique
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Ethnography
Ethnography involves a systematic study of a culture. The study should reflect the knowledge and social
meanings within a cultural group. Typically, this design is associated with sociology, but it may be used to
study many issues associated with practitioner degrees such as to study an organizational or classroom
culture or to research ethnic cultural norms that impact healthcare decisions. Data collection may entail
interviewing participants to collect their cultural perceptions, examining the behavior and interactions
between members of the culture, or examining artifacts and documents that convey the culture. Access
conducting ethnography for an explanation of the characteristics of ethnographic research and how this
design is conducted.
Note that autoethnography, a self-reflective sociological study that explores the researcher’s personal
experience and connects their autobiographical story to wider cultural and social meanings, is not
appropriate for the practitioner programs offered at University of Phoenix.
Data collection may entail interviewing participants to collect their perceptions regarding their
organizational culture, examining the interactions and behavior of the participants, or examining artifacts
and documents that convey the organizational culture such as the mission and vision statements and
espoused organizational values.
Purpose Statement
The purpose statement should specifically state that the objective of the research is to explore the
problem from a cultural perspective.
Significance of the Study
Describe the potential benefits of the proposed study such as to improve the understanding of the culture
and to provide recommendations that may improve the situation. For example, if the problem is that many
African Americans are not obtaining needed mental health care due to a cultural stigma (Alvidrez,
Snowden, & Kaiser, 2008), the Significance of the Study should convey that the study will result in
recommendations to address and reduce the stigma.
Proposed Research Methodology
Ethnographic research is typically associated with the qualitative method.
Research Questions
The research questions should reflect a focus on culture. For example:
R1. What cultural norms result in many African Americans perceiving a stigma associated with mental
health assistance?
R2. How are these cultural norms passed down through generations?
R3. How are these cultural norms changing within the generations, if at all?
Resources
Dissertation Guide Readings for Ethnography
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Grounded Theory
The grounded theory design has a history of debate even among its germinal methodologists; however,
this design can be a great option for topics in any practitioner program for which a theoretical basis is
lacking. The objective of this design is to develop a theory regarding the topic under study. The theory
must be grounded in data collected for the research. The following websites provides an overview of
grounded theory: Overview of grounded theory
Grounded theory originated with Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss (1967). These theorists later diverged
on their principles of this design and the design has evolved slightly based on follow on work by Kathy
Charmaz. The following website provides a historical perspective of the design: Founding theorists’ views
of grounded theory
Data analysis of grounded theory data is usually conducted manually, using the constant comparative
approach which consists of open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. The following website
provides a simplified example of the analysis method based on three example research questions:
Constant comparative coding
Although this design can be used for any practitioner program the following source focuses on the use of
grounded theory in healthcare: DHA example of a grounded theory study
An important point to keep in mind is that the purpose of grounded theory is to create a theory, which may
be presented as a visual model or as hypotheses to explain or define the phenomenon under study. This
theory or model must be presented in the final chapter of the dissertation. Keep in mind that creating a
theory or theoretical model is an excellent way to develop publishable contribution to the body of
knowledge.
Purpose Statement
The purpose statement for grounded theory studies must include the objective of theory development.
Significance of the Study
Describe the potential benefits of contributing a new theory to the body of knowledge. For example,
discuss why developing a model that explains the phenomenon might be beneficial, and to whom.
Proposed Research Methodology
Grounded theory research is typically associated with the qualitative method.
Research Questions
The final research question should focus on development of a theory or a theoretical model. For example:
R1: How do organizational leader/managers lead and manage multigenerational workforce members
differently?
R2: How has the organization transformed to attract, motivate, and retain Millennials?
R3: What grounded theory can be developed to improve recruitment, motivation, and retention of
Millennials?
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Example Resultant Theoretical Model
The following figure depicts an approach for developing the resultant theory. The theory may be stated in
narrative or may be depicted as a figure, as shown below:
Adapted from Key stakeholders and factors influencing attracting, motivating and retaining Millennials
(Carpenter & de Charon, 2017).
Carpenter, M. J., & de Charon, L. C. (2014). Mitigating multigenerational conflict and attracting,
motivating, and retaining millennial employees by changing the organizational culture: A theoretical
model. Journal of Psychological Issues in Organizational Culture. 5(3), 68-84.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jpoc.21154
Note: Carpenter & de Charon article not available in University of Phoenix library.
Resources
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Narrative Inquiry
Narrative inquiry emerged in the 20th century as a study of experiences as understood through the stories
of the participants. The primary theorists associated with this design are D. Jean Clandinin and F. Michael
Connelly (2000). When conducting this design, the researcher creates rich description of these
experiences and explores shared meaning of the participants’ experiences. According to Connelly and
Clandinin (2006), and Haydon and van der Riet (2017), the exploratory structure for narrative inquiry
should include:
• Temporality – the time of the experiences and how the experiences could influence the future;
• Sociality – cultural and personal influences of the experiences; and;
• Spatiality – the environmental surroundings during the experiences and their influence on the
experiences
This design was originally rooted in the work of John Dewey (1938) and used in the field of education. In
addition to participant interviews narrative inquiry may rely on data collected from archival sources such
as autobiographies, journals, letters, and photos. Narrative inquiry – Clandinin provides an overview of this
design, as described by one of the key theorists.
In addition to the education field narrative inquiry can be very applicable within healthcare as narrative
stories are useful to convey the meanings of patients or healthcare staff in story form. Narrative inquiry in
healthcare details using this design within the healthcare field.
Although this design may also be used within business related programs, narrative inquiry focuses on
“personal and social context” (Wang & Geale, 2015, p. 196). Therefore, any DM, DM/IST, or DBA studies
using this design should be limited to research of a personal nature such as experiences associated with
employment issues. Process centered topics do not align with narrative inquiry.
Purpose Statement
The purpose statement for narrative inquiry studies must include the objective of examining participants’
experiences as understood through their stories. The elements of temporality, sociality, and spatiality
should be included in the stated study objectives.
Example: The purpose of the proposed narrative inquiry will be to understand the meaning that younger
members of Native American tribes place on older tribal members’ stories about higher education.
Significance of the Study
Describe potential benefits to the industry of examining the stories and experiences of the participants.
Proposed Research Methodology
Narrative inquiry research is typically associated with the qualitative method.
Research Questions
The research questions should focus on temporality, sociality, and spatiality. For example:
R1: What were the participants’ feelings about the experience (name specific experience)? (temporality)
R2: What were the cultural factors and what were the interrelationships with other people involved in the
situation (name specific situation)? (sociality)
R3: What was the physical environment during the experience and how did the environment impact the
experience (name specific experience)? (spatiality)
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Additional research question examples:
R1: What do college age Native Americans living on a reservation feel about leaving the reservation to
attend college? (temporality)
R2: How do cultural factors and other people influence their feelings about leaving the reservation to
attend college? (sociality)
R3: How do their current environment and the college environment impact their decision? (spatiality)
Resources
Dissertation Guide Readings for Narrative Inquiry
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Needs Assessment
Needs assessment is used to identify deficits between the current organizational state and the desired
state and provide recommendations regarding how to address the gap between the current and desired
states. The objective of needs assessment research is to address a problematic situation or to enhance
the organization by improving operations, programs, or the organizational structure. This design
establishes priorities to address the situation and determine recommendations for solutions by
addressing criteria for determining how to allocate resources such as people, funds, and facilities. Read
more about needs assessment overview.
The needs assessment design is often associated with the fields of business and education, such as the
DM, DM/IST, DBA, and EDD programs. However, this design can also be used for DHA program research.
See the needs assessment healthcare example.
Purpose Statement
The purpose statement for needs assessment should include the objectives of assessing the
organizational gap and recommending initiatives to address the deficit.
Significance of the Study
Describe potential benefits of implementing the recommendations. For example, describe the
organizational advantages that may be created by identifying and addressing the needs.
Proposed Research Methodology
Needs assessment research is typically associated with the qualitative method but may include a
quantitative component. Therefore, qualitative supported by quantitative data is also an option.
Research Questions
The research questions should focus on identifying the gap between the current and the desired
organizational states and recommending resources or changes to address the deficit. For example:
R1. What is the desired situation within the organization?
R2. What is the current situation within the organization?
R3. What is the gap between the current and desired situations?
R4. What resources or organizational changes can address the gap?
Resources
Dissertation Guide Readings for Needs Assessment
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Phenomenology
Phenomenology is based on the human consciousness works of philosophers Edmund Husserl and
Martin Heidegger. This research design is associated with either the field of philosophy or psychology;
therefore, it is typically not appropriate for studies conducted in the practitioner programs offered at
University of Phoenix. However, there are a few topics, usually within the healthcare discipline, for which
this design could be applicable.
Phenomenological study involves the description of personal feelings and conscious experiences of a
phenomena such as “the death of a loved one, a counseling session, an illness, winning a championship
football game, or experiencing a specific emotion such as guilt, anger, or jealousy” (Christensen, Johnson,
& Turner, 2010, p. 368).
Phenomenological experiences that have been studied in psychology and related fields include
obsessive-compulsive disorder, addiction, sexual abuse, and psychotic symptoms in narcolepsy. The
researcher is attempting to gain access into the participants’ inner world of the experience; the self-talk or
“phenomenal space” (Christensen et al., 2010).
There are multiple types of phenomenological designs including transcendental, hermeneutic, and
existential. Although phenomenology studies may include other types, it is important to include a specific
type within proposed phenomenological studies.
A primary source for modern phenomenology is the work of Clark Moustakas. It is imperative to include
this source in all proposed phenomenological studies. According to Moustakas (1994),
phenomenological studies must include broad questions such as:
• What dimensions, incidents, and people intimately connected with the experience stand outfor
you?
• How did the experience affect you? What changes do you associate with the experience?
• How did the experience affect significant others in your life?
• What feelings were generated by the experience?
• What thoughts stood out for you?
• What bodily changes or states were you aware of at the time?
• Have you shared all that is significant with reference to the experience? (p. 116)
According to Moustakas (1994), in phenomenology noema defines how the participants experienced the
phenomenon by touch, sight, or feeling, and noesis defines the participants’ perceptions of their
experience of the phenomena. Epoché and phenomenological reductions should be used during the
interview process to identify the noema and noesis of each participant. Data analysis should be
conducted using either the seven-step modified van Kaam process or the four-step Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen
process (Moustakas, 1994). The following source introduces Moustakas’ methodological theories:
Moustakas phenomenology
Purpose Statement
The purpose statement for phenomenology should include the objective of understanding feelings and
conscious experiences associated with a personal phenomenon. Example: The purpose of the proposed
phenomenological study will be to gain the lived experiences of pediatric nurses who have had to tell
parents their child was going to die.
Significance of the Study
Describe potential benefits of exploring the feelings and conscious experiences associated with a
personal phenomenon.
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Proposed Research Methodology
Phenomenology research is associated with the qualitative method.
Research Questions
The research questions synthesize the seven broad questions identified by Moustakas (1994). For
example:
R1. What are the lived experiences of pediatric nurses who have had to tell parents their child was going
to die?
R2. What internal conflicts do pediatric nurses describe in making the decision to tell parents their child
was going to die?
Resources
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Program Assessment
Program assessment, also referred to as program evaluation, is often associated with educational
programs and healthcare programs, but this design can be accomplished on various programs within
diverse organizations and institutions. This design involves development and implementation of a
systematic approach for collecting and analyzing data to determine the effectiveness of an existing
program. Within the educational field program assessment is used to determine the effectiveness of a
curriculum on intended student learning, and in healthcare and other fields the objective is typically to
assess the outcome of the program against its intended results. Although the phases of program
evaluation differ based on the discipline, basic steps of program assessments include:
• Engaging stakeholders
• Describing the program
• Creating the evaluation
• Collecting and analyzing data
• Developing conclusions
• Making recommendations
The following evaluation model is useful for evaluating an educational curriculum, beginning with
comparing the current state to the desired state: Educational program assessment
The following healthcare model is useful for evaluating healthcare programs:
• Healthcare program assessment
• Using Program Assessment in the Healthcare Programs
Problem Statement
Discuss the need for the program assessment. This section should include a cited problem. Programs are
typically assessed either during program development or immediately after the program has been
initiated; therefore, the problem might focus on use of program funding with no mechanisms to measure
the program outcomes. Since program assessment is typically based on the needs of a single
organization rather than a broad issue, it is acceptable to cite the organizational leadership as “personal
communication” (see p. 179 of the APA manual).
Purpose Statement
The purpose statement should state the method, which is typically qualitative. The design may be
referred to as either program assessment or program evaluation. The purpose statement also should
state the objectives of the assessment such as to evaluate the value of the program, to measure the
actual outcomes of the program against its intended outcomes, to discover whether unintended
consequences exist, and to recommend corrective measures or potential program modifications. This
section should also state the type of organization or institution, the program objectives, and participants
or stakeholders involved in evaluating the program.
Significance of the Study
Describe the potential benefits of identifying the value of the program, measuring or improving the
program outcomes, possibly eliminating unintended consequences, and recommending potential
program modifications might benefit the organization or institution. Scholarly Support and Theoretical
Basis for Program Assessment Research provides support for the use of this design.
Proposed Research Methodology
Program assessment studies are typically qualitative and are often supported by quantitative data. It is
possible to conduct a program assessment as a quantitative quasi-experiment or experiment (see
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Program assessment methodology). This section should describe the researcher’s role in the study and
how the stakeholders will participate in the research.
Research Questions
For a qualitative study research questions must be included, but hypotheses should not be included. For
quantitative quasi-experimental studies hypotheses should be included to compare the control and
experiment groups.
Example qualitative research questions might include:
R1. Who are the program stakeholders and what are their roles in the program?
R2. What is the context and need for the program; what are the program activities and goals?
R3. What are the actual program outcomes relative to the intended outcomes?
R4. What conclusions can be made about the program effectiveness and what recommendations might
potentially improve the program?
Resources
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Quantitative Research Design Selection and Alignment
Correlational Research
Correlational research is a non-experimental quantitative design, meaning that it does not involve
manipulation of the situation or people. The objective of correlational research is to quantitatively
measure and determine the relationship between two or more variables. Correlational research uses the
terms predictor and criterion variables rather than independent and dependent variables. The measure (or
behavior) being predicted is the criterion variable, and the measure (or behavior) from which the
prediction is made is the predictor variable. The determined relationship between the variables does not
imply a causal relationship between the variables; therefore, it is important that the proposed study does
not imply that the results will determine “cause” or “effect.”
Relationships or associations between variables is measured by statistics to identify the significance of
the relationship or association. Statistical significance describes the meaning of significance in
correlational research. Typically, the alpha should be set at .5 for social science research.
Correlational designs use various types of statistical analyses, based on the types of quantitative data
collected to measure each variable. Once data types have been identified, the appropriate statistical tests
can be determined. For more information on the various types of data and statistical tests, see data types
and statistical tests.
Regression analysis may also be used for some studies to take the analysis further. Regression allows
the researcher to graphically model the variables and is widely used for prediction and forecasting.
Regression analysis provides further information on applying this type of analysis.
Problem Statement
Discuss the existing issue to be addressed by examining the relationships between the study variables.
Purpose Statement
The purpose should convey that the study will examine the relationship between the variables, not the
cause or effects between the variables. The relationship should be a statistically “significant” relationship.
The purpose section must specify the predictor and criterion variables to be examined and the sources of
data to be analyzed, such as the instruments to be used to collect data.
Significance of the Study
Describe the potential benefits of identifying the relationship between the variables to be examined.
Discuss who this information will benefit and why.
Proposed Research Methodology
The correlational design is quantitative.
Research Questions/Hypotheses
This design requires both research questions and hypotheses. Note that at least one research question is
required and at least two sets of hypotheses should be included. The following is an example of such
research questions/hypotheses.
R1: What is the relationship between emotional intelligence, as measured by the Emotional and Social
Competence Inventory (ESCI), and satisfaction with co-workers, as measured by the Job Descriptive
Index (JDI)?
H10: There is not a significant relationship between the Self-Awareness scale of the ECI and the co-worker
satisfaction scale of the JDI.
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H1A: There is a significant relationship between the Self-Awareness scale of the ECI and the co-worker
satisfaction scale of the JDI.
H20: There is not a significant relationship between the Social Awareness scale of the ECI and the coworker satisfaction scale of the JDI.
H2A: There is a significant relationship between the Social Awareness scale of the ECI and the co-worker
satisfaction scale of the JDI.
H30: There is not a significant relationship between the Self-Management scale of the ECI and the coworker satisfaction scale of the JDI.
H3A: There is a significant relationship between the Self-Management scale of the ECI and the co-worker
satisfaction scale of the JDI.
H40: There is not a significant relationship between the Relationship Management scale of the ECI and
the co-worker satisfaction scale of the JDI.
H4A: There is a significant relationship between the Relationship Management scale of the ECI and the
co-worker satisfaction scale of the JDI.
Resources
Dissertation Guide Readings for Correlational
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Experimental and Quasi-experimental Research
The objective of experimental and quasi-experimental research is to investigate cause-and-effect by
utilizing a treatment or intervention for the experimental group and comparing the results to a control
group who did not receive the treatment or intervention. For example, an educational or training program.
The difference between experimental and quasi-experimental research is the assignment of the
participants.
Whereas experimental research requires random participant and group selection, such as in a doubleblind experimental drug study in which neither the researcher nor the participants know who is in the
experimental or control group, quasi-experimental does not. Therefore, quasi-experimental research is
much more common than experimental research within social science research such as the practitioner
doctorates offered at University of Phoenix.
Experimental research describes several types of research used within true experimental research. Quasiexperimental research and types of quasi-experimental research focus on quasi-experiments.
Problem Statement
Discuss the existing issue to be addressed by examining the results of a treatment or intervention.
Purpose Statement
The purpose should convey the treatment or intervention to be introduced and state that the study will
examine the effects/outcomes of the treatment or intervention. This section must also specify the type of
design, such as a pretest-posttest or interrupted time series (see Types of quasi-experimental research).
Significance of the Study
Describe the potential benefits of identifying the effects of the treatment or intervention. Discuss who this
information will benefit and why.
Proposed Research Methodology
Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are quantitative.
Research Questions/Hypotheses
This design requires both research questions and hypotheses. Note that at least one research question is
required and at least two sets of hypotheses should be included. The following is an example of such
research questions/hypotheses. In this pretest-posttest example the web-based tutoring program is the
intervention. The dependent variable, math scores, is measured once before the intervention is
implemented and again after it is implemented.
R1: What is the effect of a web-based tutoring program on the math scores of 3rd grade students?
H10: There is not a significant pretest difference in the math scores between the control group who did
not participate in the web-based tutoring program and the experimental group who participated in the
web-based tutoring program.
H1A: There is a significant pretest difference in the math scores between the control group who did not
participate in the web-based tutoring program and the experimental group who participated in the webbased tutoring program.
H20: There is not significant pretest-to-posttest difference in the math scores of the control group who did
not participate in the web-based tutoring program.
H2A: There is a significant pretest-to-posttest difference in the math scores of the control group who did
not participate in the web-based tutoring program.
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H30: There is not a significant pretest-to-posttest increase in the math scores of the experimental group
who participated in the web-based tutoring program.
H3A: There is a significant pretest-to-posttest increase in the math scores of the experimental group who
participated in the web-based tutoring program.
Resources
Dissertation Guide Readings for Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research
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Ex Post Facto (Causal Comparative)
When it is not practical or ethical to engage human research participants, the ex post facto, also referred
to as causal comparative, can provide an alternative design. Ex post facto simply means after the fact,
meaning that data have already been collected over a period of time and must be worked with “as is.”
According to Vogt (2005), it is “any investigation using existing data rather than new data gathered
specifically for the study” (p. 114). Review ex post facto videos for various videos on the ex post facto
design.
The objective of this design is to investigate the cause and effect by examining differences between or
within two or more groups on two or more variables using data that has already been collected
(secondary data). A key a feature is that the independent variable cannot be manipulated. Researchers
must establish the following conditions to justify a claim that changes in variable A cause changes in
variable B:
• Condition 1: Variable A (the presumed causal or independent variable) and variable B(the
presumed effect or dependent variable) must be associated or related. This is called the
relationship condition.
• Condition 2: Changes in variable A must precede the changes in variable B. This is called the
temporal order condition.
• Condition 3: No plausible alternative explanations exist for the relationship between variableA
and variable B. This is called the no alternative explanation condition.
There are many secondary data sets in the public domain that provide opportunity to access large
amounts of data, including longitudinal data. These data may contain an abundance of diverse variables
allowing the researcher to explore various combinations of relationships to gain insights not previously
studied. Note that because these data have already been collected, obtaining permission to conduct the
study is much simpler and quicker than required with most research, which typically requires recruiting
participants and collecting primary data.
Problem Statement
Discuss the existing issue to be addressed by examining the relationships between the study variables.
Purpose Statement
The purpose should convey that the study will examine the effects/outcomes using secondary (archival)
data to determine causes of differences that already exist between or within two or more groups. This
section must specify the independent and dependent variables to be examined and the archival source of
the secondary data to be analyzed.
Significance of the Study
Describe the potential benefits of identifying the effects between the variables to be examined. Discuss
who this information will benefit and why.
Proposed Research Methodology
The ex post facto or causal comparative design is quantitative.
Research Questions/Hypotheses
This design requires both research questions and hypotheses. Note that at least one research question is
required and at least two sets of hypotheses should be included. The following is an example of such
research questions/hypotheses. In this example the students’ gender is the independent variable.
R1: What is the effect of using a web-based tutoring program on the math and grammar scores of 3rd
grade boys and girls?
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H10: There is not a significant difference in the academic growth in math scores between the boys and
girls.
H1A: There is a significant difference in the academic growth in math scores between the boys and girls.
H20: There is not a significant difference in the academic growth in grammar scores between the boys
and girls.
H2A: There is a significant difference in the academic growth in grammar scores between the boys and
girls.
Resources
Dissertation Guide Readings for Ex Post Facto
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Factor Analysis
Factor analysis is used to identify unobservable variables, defined as factors, based on observable
variables. These factors represent underlying concepts that cannot be adequately measured by a single
variable. The purpose of factor analysis is to uncover underlying factors that explain correlations among
multiple outcomes, it is important that the variables studied be at least somewhat correlated.
This design relies on the assumption that underlying factors can explain a complex situation. Factor
analysis is typically used to understand attitudes and behaviors. The design can be used in various fields
to understand behaviors and is particularly useful for DBA students seeking to identify consumer
attitudes. The following links provide further information on conducting factor analysis:
• History and definition of factor analysis
• Use of factor analysis
• Conducting factor analysis
• Factor analysis example
Problem Statement
Discuss the existing issue to be addressed by examining the underlying factors that impact the study
variables.
Purpose Statement
The purpose should convey that the study will identify the factors that represent the concepts underlying
the study variables.
Significance of the Study
Describe the potential benefits of identifying the relevant factors. Discuss who this information will
benefit and why.
Proposed Research Methodology
Factor analysis is quantitative.
Research Questions/Hypotheses
This design does not require both research questions and hypotheses, but correlational hypotheses can
be included to further the understanding of the variables. The following is an example of such research
questions/hypotheses. In this example a list of survey items is compiled to measure motives for online
shopping, such as time convenience, place convenience, easy price comparison, large selection, access to
customer reviews, ease of shopping, time savings. This list should be developed based on literature
reviews. The survey should be used to collect Likert-type data to examine the importance of each survey
item, then the factor analysis should be conducted to address R1. In addition, correlation can be conducted
on consumer’s demographic variables such age category and gender—see R2.
R1: What factors influence consumer online shopping behavior?
R2: What is the relationship between age category, gender, and online shopping behavior?
H10: There is no significant difference in online shopping behavior based on age category (below 25
years, 26-40 years, above 40 years).
H1A: There is a significant difference in online shopping behavior based on age category (below 25 years,
26-40 years, above 40 years).
H20: There is no significant difference in online shopping behavior based on gender.
H2A: There is a significant difference in online shopping behavior based on gender.
Resources
Dissertation Guide Readings for Factor Analysis
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Q-Methodology
The Q-methodology design is a systematic study of participant’s subjectivity. In contrast to the factor
analysis design, which involves finding correlations between variables across the participants, Qmethodology seeks correlation between participants across variables. The analysis reduces the individual
viewpoints to represent the participants’ shared perspectives.
This unconventional design was developed in the 1930s by William Stephenson. While some researchers
argue that Q-methodology is quantitative (Rozalia, 2008) the subjective nature of the design has led
others to argue that Q-methodology is mixed- method or qualitative supported by quantitative data
(Angelopulo, 2009). Q-methodology was primarily used in psychology until 1970 but is currently used in
disciplines including education and business research.
Q-methodology measures participants’ perspectives of value, meaning, or significance regarding
researcher developed statements, defined as a Q-sort. This set of statements is viewed as a dynamic
medium through which subjectivity is expressed. The researcher typically develops 20 to 100 statements
relevant to the research topic based on a review of the literature. The term P-set is used to describe the
participants; a P-set of 40 to 60 participants is typically adequate for a Q-methodology study. The
following links describe this design further:
• Q-methodology overview
• Conducting a Q-methodology
Data collection procedure is traditionally performed using a paper template and the developed
statements printed on individual cards. However, there are also computer software and applications for
conducting online Q sorts. The following is an example of the software specific to this design: Example Qsort processing software
Problem Statement
Discuss the existing issue to be addressed by examining the common attitudes or perceptions between
the participants.
Purpose Statement
The purpose should convey that the study will examine participants’ shared perspectives.
Significance of the Study
Describe the potential benefits of identifying participants’ shared perspectives. Discuss who this
information will benefit and why.
Proposed Research Methodology
While some researchers argue that Q-methodology is quantitative the subjective nature of the design has
led others to argue that Q-methodology is mixed-method or qualitative supported by quantitative data.
Research Questions/Hypotheses
This design requires research questions but does not require hypotheses. The following is an example of
such research questions. In this example the study seeks to examine common attitudes across three
income levels. The Q-sort should be developed to create 20 to 100 statements regarding consumer
motives during food product purchase decisions.
R1. What product attributes (brand, price, convenience, and flavor) influence food product purchasing
decisions for consumers with a household income of $40.000 or less?
R2. What product attributes (brand, price, convenience, and flavor) influence household product
purchasing decisions for consumers with a household income of $40.001 to $80.000?
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R3. What product attributes (brand, price, convenience, and flavor) influence household product
purchasing decisions for consumers with a household income of $80.001 or more?
Resources
Dissertation Guide Readings for Q-Methodology
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Mixed-Method Research and Alignment
Mixed-method studies are conducted when the researcher seeks to use quantitative and qualitative
approaches in tandem with one another to strengthen the overall study or to accomplish something that
the use of one method could not do standing alone. Mixed-methods research is appropriate for
healthcare, education, and business research. Access the following resource for a comprehensive
discussion of mixed-method: mixed-method.
The type of mixed-methods strategy a researcher uses is based upon four factors, which are:
•
•
•
•
Theoretical perspective
Priority of strategy
Sequence of data collectionimplementation
Point of data integration
Based upon these four factors, a researcher chooses the type of mixed-methods appropriate for
designing and executing the research. Types include:
• Sequential Explanatory Strategy – sequentially uses quantitative method as the primary method
and a qualitative method as the secondary method.
• Sequential Exploratory Strategy – sequentially uses qualitative method as the primary method and
quantitative as the secondarymethod.
• Sequential Transformative Strategy – sequentially uses a primary method in the first phase of the
research, then incorporates the secondary method in the second phase of the research. Whether
a quantitative or qualitative method is employed in the first phase is dependent upon the
theoretical lens that is being used. The transformative strategy builds on the first phase of the
research for the secondary phase.
• Concurrent Triangulation Strategy – collects all data at the same time and then uses thesedata
together to determine if these data points to the same or similar results.
• Concurrent Embedded/Nested Strategy – collects all data at the same time and then usesthese
data where one method is given priority and the secondary method is embedded/nested to test
secondary research questions.
• Concurrent Transformative Strategy – shares perspectives with both the triangulation and
embedded/nested strategies; however, it is guided bya theoretical or conceptual framework.
An inherent challenge for mixed methods is the need for the researcher to be skilled at designing and
executing the study using both quantitative and qualitative methods. It is important to note that mixedmethod is more than simply collecting and analyzing both quantitative and qualitative data. The
triangulation of these data is key. These data must be mixed and analyzed to address the research
questions and hypotheses. For research that involves both methods but these data are not mixed to
answer the research questions, consider a specific qualitative design and use the term “qualitative
supported by quantitative data”.
Problem Statement
Discuss the existing issue to be addressed by collecting and analyzing quantitative and qualitative data.
Purpose Statement
The purpose should convey the type of mixed-method study, based on the six types listed above. This
section should describe how these data will be collected and mixed.
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Significance of the Study
Describe the potential benefits of conducting the study. Discuss who this information will benefit and
why.
Proposed Research Methodology
If one of the six types discussed above will be used, the study will be a mixed-method research.
Otherwise, consider a specific qualitative design and use the term “qualitative supported by quantitative
data”.
Research Questions/Hypotheses
This design requires research questions and hypotheses. The following is an example of such research
questions/hypotheses. Using a Sequential Transformative Strategy, the quantitative method is used in the
first phase of the research to address Research Question 1 and its associated hypotheses, then
qualitative data are used in the second phase of the research to address Research Question 2.
R1: What is the relationship between use of the transformational and transactional leadership styles and
employee performance?
H10: There is not a significant correlation between use of the transformational leadership style and
employee performance.
H1A: There is a significant correlation between use of the transformational leadership style and employee
performance.
H20: There is not a significant correlation between use of the transactional leadership style and employee
performance.
H2A: There is a significant correlation between use of the transactional leadership style and employee
performance.
R2: What leadership training might improve employee performance?
Resources
Dissertation Guide Readings for Mixed-Methods
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Method and Design Selection Summary
Once an appropriate method and design have been selected be sure to locate and review references
developed by the primary methodologists associated with that design. It is also crucial use an iterative
process to ensure that the purpose and research questions align with the selected design. Reviewing for
and revising to ensure alignment between each of the research elements is key part of the doctoral
process!
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Doctoral Phase 1: The Prospectus
The initial dissertation milestone, the prospectus, is a formal outline of the research project that outlines
information to convey that the research can be completed and will provide meaningful results that
contribute to the academic and practitioner communities. The prospectus should be iteratively updated
until the end of Year 2 Residency when a Dissertation Chair will be assigned to assist with development of
the proposal.
The prospectus will be used to convey the research intent and to select an appropriate Chair. The
following elements must be included in the prospectus:
1. Program of Study (including specialization, when applicable)
2. Problem Statement
3. Purpose Statement
4. Methodology (Proposed Method and Design)
5. Research Population and Sample, and Other Data Sources
6. Significance of the Study
7. Research Questions/Hypotheses
8. Topic Literature
9. Topic Theories
10. Research Data Collection Strategy
11. Potential Dissertation Chair Information
The title of the prospectus should reflect the purpose and methodology of the study and should be
considered a ‘working title’. The outline that follows indicates the information needed in the prospectus.
Following the form, additional information is provided regarding alignment of the prospectus elements.
This information will assist in developing an organized and viable research outline.
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Prospectus
Working Title of the Study
Student’s Name
1. Program of Study (including specialization, when applicable)
For example, DM, DM/IST, DBA, DHA, EDD, EDD/ET, EDD/CI, EDD/HEA
2. Problem Statement
The problem should convey an existing issue and the statement should be supported by literature or cited
using personal communication from an organizational leader. If you do not cite in Phase 1, you will need
to cite your problem statement at Phase 2 with current (within the last five-years) literature or
communication.
3. Purpose Statement
Provide a statement of the objectives of the study. Review the “purpose” section of the Research Design
Selection and Alignment section of the Dissertation Guide and Alignment Handbook associated with the
proposed design to ensure alignment.
4. Methodology (Proposed Method and Design)
After reviewing the Overview of Methods and Designs section and the Research Design Selection and
Alignment section Dissertation Guide and Alignment Handbook, select a method and a design that are
most appropriate for the proposed study. State the proposed method and design and briefly describe why
these are appropriate to achieve the proposed objectives.
5. Research Population and Sample, and Other Data Sources
Describe the population by discussing the criteria for selecting the study participants, and describe the
sample size, and the rationale for the sample size. If the study will include archival data briefly explain
the proposed sources of data.
6. Significance of the Study
Provide a statement of the importance of conducting the study. Review the “significance of the study”
section of the Research Design Selection and Alignment section Dissertation Guide and Alignment
Handbook associated with the proposed design to ensure alignment.
7. Research Questions/Hypotheses
State the proposed research questions and hypotheses, when appropriate. Review the “research
questions/hypotheses” section of the Research Design Selection and Alignment section Dissertation
Guide and Alignment Handbook associated with the proposed design to ensure alignment.
8. Topic Literature
Provide a list of 5 to 10 topic literature peer-reviewed references in APA format that are relevant to the
proposed study. Provide a discussion that includes 1 to 2 sentences for each reference to describe the
relevance of the literature to the proposed study.
9. Topic Theories
Review research literature associated with the selected research topic(s) and state 1 to 3 relevant theories
associated with the topics. This step will become the basis for the conceptual or theoretical framework, to
be more fully developed in chapters 1 and 2 of the proposal in Phase 2.
10. Research Data Collection Strategy
Briefly describe the proposed process for collecting these data from the research sample and from any
archival sources described in item 5, above.
Add an APA-formatted reference page to the end of the template.
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Alignment of the Prospectus Elements
Each of the major elements of the prospectus must be aligned in order to plan a systematic and
feasible study. Typically, the problem statement is viewed as the starting point for developing the
prospectus. As mentioned previously the research problem should be presented as an existing
social issue for which there is not a known solution or an effective solution. The problem must be
supported with citations. The stated problem then drives the purpose, and the research method and
desig…